The earth upon which we walk comprises a wondrous ecosystem that has been habitually neglected throughout history. Therefore it would be wise to understand some of the basics of soil science before we begin our trek towards self-sufficiency. Consideration of the soil must be a primary focus in all of our management plans because those who neglect the vitality of the land are destined to failure. It is just that simple.

In the premier issue of this newsletter (April, 1993), I described the structure of an ecosystem and how energy is captured by producers (photosynthetic plants) and then passed on to the consumer population (herbivores, carnivores & decomposers). However, the vitality of the producers, the actual engine of the ecosystem, is fully dependent on the vigor of the soil. Our role in this drama, is to replenish and liberate the energy and nutrient stocks of the soil, that are required to produce abundant crops destined as offerings to Lord Krishna and His devotees.

So to begin our discussion, it is important to note that soil is comprised of four components: minerals, organic matter, water and air (primarily nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide). According to the soil s particular mix of these four ingredients, its physical, chemical and biological properties are determined.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Soil Texture
The first description of soil that you will hear is always in regard to soil texture. The mineral portion of the soil consists of particles of sand, silt and clay and the proportion of each determines soil texture. Sand, silt and clay are descriptions of the diameter of the individual soil particles contained within the soil and is not a classification of mineral content. The percentages of each soil fraction then determines the texture. For example, a soil with 22% clay, 44% silt and 30% sand will be classified as a loam soil. In this way, soils are designated as loam, silty loam, loamy sand, sandy clay, silty clay or clay to name a few. And each soil type has its particular character.

Sandy soils are more porous resulting in a lower ability to hold water. Therefore, they are characterized as having good drainage and aeration along with being easily cultivated. Simultaneously, sandy soils are the most difficult to increase organic matter levels due to its propensity to oxidize organic matter.

A silty soil, one the other hand, will have the tendency of decreased air and water movement in comparison to its sandy counterpart.
In terms of the physical and chemical properties of a soil, the clay fraction is the most important.... The clay fraction is a storehouse for plant nutrients as well as a major contributing factor to the swelling, shrinking, stickiness and water-holding capacity of soils.1

It is important to note that only the clay and organic matter segments of the soil have the ability to hold plant nutrients and moisture. This will come into better focus later when we discuss the chemical properties of the soil.

Soil Structure
Soil structure is another important point to understand and is one factor that can be improved through proper farming practice. Soil structure is how the mineral and organic particles stick together and make small aggregates or peds. As an example, by examining a handful of sand, one can see how the individual grains fall apart. However, with a soil rich in organic matter, one will notice that the soil does not break apart in the same manner but sticks together in small balls, or peds. How the soil adheres together in this way is called soil structure.

These peds are soil particles bonded together by cementing agents such as clay, by-products of organic matter decomposition or by gelatinous by-products of soil organisms. A good soil structure is maintained by the continuous addition of organic matter.
Crop roots and residues, especially hay and sod crops, encourage the development of a granular structure in the surface soil by the addition of organic matter and root secretions that act as cementing agents. The minute roots compress the soil particles and dehydrate the soil, an essential step in aggregate formation.2

The benefits of maintaining good soil structure is that it increases soil porosity and aeration while aiding water movement and reducing soil erosion. The beneficial properties of increased porosity and subsequent reduction of soil compaction are usually the result of proper tillage and cropping practice.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
The chemical properties of a soil are in the domain of the colloidal content of the soil, that is within the clay and humus/organic matter portions.
As described in the discussion of soil texture, clay is composed of the smallest particles of soil. Due to their minuteness, the clay particles have a very large surface area in relation to the volume of soil.
This tremendous surface area of a clay soil has major significance for growing crops. That is the function of the soil colloid, an attribute which is found only in the clay and organic matter components of the soil. On these tiny particles are electrically-charged exchange sites which play an essential role in plant nutrition. The process of exchanging nutrients from these exchange sites to the plant is referred to as Cation Exchange Capacity.

Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

The soil colloids, found in clay and organic matter, have negatively charged sites that attract cations (positively charged nutrients). Soil nutrients that are positively charged are adsorbed onto the colloid. On the other hand, the negatively charged nutrients and minerals which will not adsorb onto the negatively charged colloid and which move into the soil solution or water are called anions.

Since anions are water soluble, maintaining the required levels of anions in the soil can become a problem since they can be leached by rainfall. Anion reserves are maintained in the soil in the form of complex organic compounds which depend on healthy biological processes. Again the importance of maintaining organic matter levels to support the soil s biological populations and the nonuse of inorganic fertilizers and deadly sprays becomes evident. Important anion nutrients include carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, chlorine, boron, molybdenum and sulfur while the major cations consist of calcium, magnesium and potassium.

Therefore, in supplying plants their required nutrition, there are two forces at play. The clay and organic matter fractions hold the positively-charged nutrients (cations) by the electrical attraction of the clay/organic matter s negatively-charged sites. The negatively-charged nutrients (anions) are held in the soil solution to be absorbed by the plant through root hairs. And both of these nutrient streams provide food for the plants.

The CEC is a major measure of potential for the soil s inherent fertility. It indicates the soil's ability to store cations, which include some of the major plant nutrients.3
Cation exchange capacities are expressed in milliequivalents (how many thousandths of a gram of hydrogen or its equivalent charge can be held by 100 grams of dry soil). The higher the soil s CEC, the greater the quantity of mineral nutrients needed to fill its reserves—but the longer they will be held available in the soil. Soils in the Northeast [of the U.S.] generally have CEC s between 10 to 30 milliequivalents, whereas a sandy tropical soil would have a CEC below 4 milliequivalents. A low CEC can be significantly improved by adding more humus.~ Pure humus has a value of about 100 milliequivalents per 100 grams [my emphasisl ."

We ll return to the topic of CEC after we discuss the pH of soil; but at this point the benefit of organic matter must be emphasized. It improves not only the nutrient holding capacity of the soil but also the soil structure, and thankfully, we can manage organic matter levels through our farming and gardening practice. It is the organic matter that provides nutrition to the soil life and plants, increased water retention and reduced draft requirements for tillage. These are the substance of successful farming.

pH
Perhaps the most important chemical characteristic of a soil is its reactions, that is, its degree of acidity or alkalinity. Whether a soil is acidic, neutral, or alkaline affects the nature of its chemical and physical properties, and hence suitability as a medium for the growth of plants. The pH scale goes from 0 to 14 with pH 7 being neutral. Any value below indicates acidity and any value above indicates basic or alkaline conditions.5 It may be of interest to mention that the pH scale is logarithmic in nature. This means that as you go from a pH of 6 to 5, as an example, the acidity would have increased 10 times and a pH of 4 will be 100 times (10 X 10) more acidic that a pH of 6. Likewise, on the alkaline or basic side of the scale, a pH of 9 is ten times more basic than a pH of 8, etc.

In regards to acidity, cations are base-forming while anions form weak acids in water.

So now let s try to understand the relationship between pH and CEC because until now we have discussed it only abstractly without relating it to the realm of growing food. The root of a plant discharges acidity in the form of hydrogen ions (H~) which displaces one of the cation ions loosely adsorbed to the soil colloid. In time, the exchange sites becomes filled with hydrogen ions and the soil becomes more acidic. A successful fertility program focusses on discharging the hydrogen ions from the exchange sites and replacing them with more beneficial cations.

Walters and Fenzau describe it well in An Acres U.S.A. Primer: Excess acidity is nothing more than the reciprocal of fertility depletion. Nature simply puts acidity into the soil from plant roots so that this acid action can break nutrients out of locked-up position and feed the several life forms. In liming an acid soil to correct pH, the farmer is merely providing rock that can react with the acid clay of the soil system. Acid goes from the clay to the lime, and lime being calcium breaks down to give carbonic acid while the calcium is absorbed by the clay. Held on the clay it is available for plant use, and it corrects or adjusts the pH in the colloidal domain where plant roots expect their energy exchange. In the meantime the carbonic acid decomposes into water and carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide escapes from the soil, taking acidity with it....

Adjusting pH, then has to do with loading nutrients back into the soil system, and not removing acidity. In fact it is bad business to remove all the acidity. Since time began, soil acidity has been breaking potassium out of potash feldspars. It has been taking magnesium from dolomitic limestone much the same as it has taken calcium....

Lime to the neutral point is a breathtaking error. It may well be a self-serving error proposed and furbished by those interested in selling water soluble salt fertilizers. A farmer with neutral soil cannot possibly grow crops without having a factory acidulate the nutrients indicated for crop production. Without an acid soil, or a good colloidal humus energy exchange system, it is no longer possible to rely on phosphate in the rock, potassium from green sand, magnesium from dolomite, or any of the trace nutrients available in the gravels that nature has provided (my emphasis). Soil without a measure of acidity condemns crops to simplistic fertilization, and when essential nutrients are restricted, plants exhibit their stress in the customary way: lodging, fungal diseases, bacterial debilitation, and insect attack.6 In eco-agriculture, an acid soil is viewed as a deficient soil. Calcium may be in short supply, but this may also be true of magnesium, sodium and potassium. The acid condition of the soil means very little if not related to the availability or absence of these major cation nutrients... .By bringing calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium into equilibrium, we will automatically adjust pH in a soil suitable for plant growth. In the meantime pH provides a clue, albeit one that can be easily misread if fundamentals of soil balance are not kept in mind.7

Base Saturation Ratio
The major cation nutrients are calcium, magnesium, and potassium. To assure adequate plant nutrition they must be present in certain minimum amounts and in correct balance. The overabundance of any one mineral, such as magnesium, may interfere with the availability of another, such as potassium, even if tests show adequate potassium levels. Base saturation refers to the percentage of a soil s CEC occupied by bases—cations other than hydrogen or aluminum.

Some efforts have been made to find the ideal cation balance or base saturation ratio. In the 1940 s Dr. William Albrecht conducted research at the University of Missouri that has had a major influence on theories of soil mineral balance. In demonstrating the results of soil mineral deficiencies on animal fertility and human health, Albrecht came to the conclusion that calcium was a major plant food. He contended that it was the calcium in limestone, not its acid neutralizing ability, that made it an important fertilizer [my emphasis). Albrecht developed an optimum base saturation based on the importance of calcium.8 That ratio is Calcium (60-70%)
Potassium (3-5%) Hydrogen (10-15%) Magnesium (10-20%). However, this example of a base saturation ration does not work on every type of soil, so check with your local department of agriculture, etc. for more advice specific to your time and circumstance.

What is important to realize is that pH does not tell the whole story; but rather which nutrients are connected to the colloid and are affecting the pH will give you the better picture. As in our own diets, plants require well rounded nutrition in order to guarantee their health.
.pH becomes self-adjusting when calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium are in proper equilibrium. To answer low pH with lime regardless of the character of that lime rates attention as frustration agronomy. pH means acidity to some people, but to eco-farmers it means a shortage of fertility elements, the same fertility elements named in the paragraph above.9

Organic Matter
Organic Matter is generally contained within the top layers of the soil profile since the prime source of organic material is provided by plant material, though the remains of animals and soil life also play an important role in the organic matter cycle.

Within the realm of organic matter there are further designations. Raw organic matter is primarily transformed through biological processes into humus. The two types of humus are categorized as either stable or effective (soluble) humus.

The organic matter in the most stable humus can rest unchanged for thousands of years; yet under the proper conditions, it can still become mineralized and finally release its nutrients to crops. Properly managed humus will maintain a dynamic equilibrium between stable and effective forms. Ideally, effective humus will predominate when crop needs are greatest, and will then subside to its lowest level by harvest time. Stable humus should thus increase during the fall and early spring, when raw organic matter has been added, and fungi are favored over bacterial decomposers.
Soil health and humus are indivisible: Health is the vitality of the soil s living population, and humus is the manifestation of its activities.10

BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES
The biological populations of the soil are divided into two categories: a) microorganisms and b) animal populations.

The microorganisms include bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi and algae. The animal population consist of protozoa (one-celled organisms), nematodes (microscopic worms), segmented worms (earthworms), and large and small insects. The size of some soil populations can be astronomical. Using bacteria as an example, estimates range from 10 to 100 million bacteria in one gram of soil. So the size of these populations in a living soil are beyond comprehension.

The bacterial populations are further categorized on the basis of their energy source (autotrophic and heterotrophic) or for their requirement of oxygen (aerobic and anaerobic). Organisms requiring oxygen for metabolism are aerobic and those not requiring oxygen are classified as anaerobic. The autotrophic classification denotes that the bacteria are. able to garner their energy from inorganic substances while heterotrophic organisms harvest carbon and energy needs from organic compounds. Though the autotrophs are in the minority they play an important role.

The byproducts of aerobic decomposition are carbon dioxide, water ammonia and nitrate. The anaerobic bacteria do not break down the materials as completely as the aerobic bacteria. One of the attributes of anaerobic decomposition is a foul odour associated with incompletely oxidized products.

All these living entities play important roles in releasing nitrogen from organic matter; nitrogen fixation (the changing of atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into nitrogen compounds by the bacteria rhizobium (found at the roots of leguminous plants), clostridium or Azotobacter; and release of minerals for plant uptake, etc. The growing of plants would not be possible without the help of these varied life forms.

The rate of decomposition and the types of products produced from this process depend on the following factors. They are the soil s pH, aeration of the soil, soil temperature and moisture plus the composition and state of the organic residue. These factors in essence regulate the type of biological life present in the soil which in turn governs the manner and products of decomposition.

The role of the decomposer is essential in crop production. They are crucial recyclers of the nutrients added to the soils through the planting of legumes, plowdowns of green manures, the spreading of composted manure, etc. They are as essential to farming as are seed, ploughs and oxen.

CONCLUSION
Hopefully, this article has portrayed some of the complexities of the world existing beneath our feet. It is truly a marvelous and complex aspect of Lord Krsna s creation. And certainly one that we must become more familiar with if we aspire to any success in achieving our goal of self-sufficiency.

As you read this article, my hope is that two main points will have become evident: (1) the importance of organic matter to fuel the soil system and (2) the prominence of the role of living creatures in the functioning of this earthly universe. These are two natural elements that must be understood and harnessed if we want to break free of a dependence on industrially-produced fertilizers and biocides in our move to self-reliance.

By using these natural methods on our rural properties, we are establishing a lifestyle in harmony with Vedic wisdom and Srila Prabhupada s instructions. So how can we go wrong?

Conventional agriculture attempts to feed the plants while the "organic" method nourishes the soil. Conventional agricultural techniques have developed from the empiric observation that soil life changes complex organic materials into inorganic forms. Those who have faith in this simplistic analysis have concluded, "Let us circumvent nature and just apply the inorganic materials. It is so much simpler. Though their idea is based on decades of research and observation, and appears to be very scientific and intelligent, it just doesn t work -- especially in the long run.

Soil erosion, decreasing levels of organic matter, poisoned groundwater tables and salinization are a few of the many indicators of the unsustainability of conventional agriculture. The subtle reason for its failure is that it is based on attitudes stemming from the false ego of control and enjoyment separate from the Supreme Personality of Godhead, Lord Sri Krsna.

In effect, conventional agricultural techniques are a form of applied impersonalism which says, "Let us use these inorganic, non-living, industrially-produced chemicals to produce our food and separate ourselves from all dependency on nature." Because such activities and attitudes are born from the modes of passion and ignorance. they are not sustainable in the long run.

On the contrary, only activity in the mode of goodness possesses the feature of maintenance or sustainability. That is why the modern food system is in such a desperate state. Alternatives must be developed to insulate our community from its inevitable collapse. How can something so contaminated with rajas and tamas persist? If it does, then the Vedic philosophy is wrong. And who should we put our faith in: Srila Prabhupada, the sages and scriptures or the scientists with their constantly changing ideas, motivated by a godless selfishness?

Feeding the soil s living population living organic matter in order to produce living crops is a biological, living and personal process that is in tune with our tenet of simple self-sufficient living and spiritual personalism. It is applied Krsna consciousness and must be one of the pillars of our social organization. Such a process harnesses the full diversity of the myriad of living organisms both above and below the soil surface. Inorganic fertilizers advertise their concentrations of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). However, though these fertilizers contain these macronutrients they neglect the necessary micronutrients essential for a balanced nutrition and therefore healthy plant. Plants that do not attract pests and are fit to fight off disease. A natural, thriving ecosystem receiving organic and non-polluting management will encourage the development of soil life that provides all the necessary nutrient requirements.

During my role as a farm inspector in the organic foods industry, I have often observed the role of soil life. At the beginning of the season, when the soils are cold and the soil life inactive, crops planted under an organic system usually languish behind the conventional crops bolstered by an early spring application of N, P and K. For example, last summer I visited a field containing winter wheat. With me was an experienced farmer but one who did not share my views on organic food production. Actually, it was his son who had planted the crop but was unavailable for the interview. So his father came along to show me the field.

On the way he complained about how poorly the crop was doing and suggested that it really needed a good shot of nitrogen
(wheat is considered a heavy feeder). So as we walked across the field I remarked that frankly the crop didn t look so bad. The gentleman took another look and agreed, expressing his surprise. He remarked, "You should have seen it this spring." Of course, the soils were cold, soil life not yet active and therefore they had not made the soil s nutrients available yet, especially the N. While this man employed a few hundred people at the fertilizer and transport company, his son had billions of bacteria churning out N, P. K, plus micronutrients for him. And for next to nothing cost-wise.

I hope this illustrates how the soil and its biologic component can be put to work for our benefit. And the next time you walk across your field, orchard or lawn, please realize: It ain t just dirt!

Endnotes:
Dept. of Land Resource Science, ONTARIO SOILS Physical. Chemical and Biological Properties and Soil Management Practices, (Guelph: University of Guelph, n.d.), p. 9.
2. Ibid., p. 11.
3. Grace Gershuny and Joseph Smillie, THE SOUL OF SOIL A Guide to Ecological Soil Management, 2nd ed. (St. Johnsbury: Gaia Services, 1986), p. 7.
Ibid., p. 8.
4. Ontario Soils, p. 21.6.Charles Walters Jr. and C.J. Fenzau, An Acres U.S.A. Primer, (Raytown: Acres U.S.A., 1979), p. 153-54.
5. Ibid.. p. 122.
6. Gershuny and Smillie, p. 8-9.
7. Fenzau and Walters, p. 128.
8. Gershuny and Smillie, p. 5.

(Definitions of Cover Crops, Catch Crop, Break crops, N-fixing manures, smother crops and allelopathic crops are listed at the end of the article after the bibliography)

The performance of a piece of music by an orchestra demands the cooperation, precision and symmetry of a large number of musicians performing on a wide variety of string, wind and percussion instruments under the expert guidance and watchful eye of the conductor. If even one musician strays from the harmony, the beauty of the music is lost to chaos. It is much the same when it comes to managing the land resources of our rural communities. Each component of the system must play its role and when every element fulfills its responsibility within the overall plan, the crescendo that is achieved is self-sufficiency.

Miguel Altieri points out that "a successful strategy (to achieve sustained agricultural productivity) will be the outcome of novel approaches to designing agroecosystems that integrate management with the individual resource base and operate within the framework of environmental conditions (Loucks 1977). Selections will have to be based on the interaction of factors such as crop species, rotations, row spacing, soil nutrients and moisture, temperature, pests, harvesting and other agronomic procedures, and will have to accommodate the need to conserve energy and resources and protect environmental quality, public health and equitable socioeconomic development."

To paraphrase, we must design our agricultural management to fit time and place utilizing respect for the environment while maximizing the capture of energy through photosynthesis while simultaneously making all attempts at reducing energy use. If this can be done in tandem with showing respect to our fellow living entities, then we are well on our way to achieving a sustainable system. If we can then center this on service to the Supreme Lord Krishna, I don t think we can expect to achieve much more in the material world.

The focus of this essay will be a brief overview on the factors involved in managing fertility and soil conservation. Self-sufficiency involves a deep respect for Krishna s energy and elements found in the soil. If we neglect them, then our hopes for a self-sufficient lifestyle will be frustrated.

To start, I really must refer our readers to several articles that I have written earlier and which have appeared in this newsletter. Altieri s point on "...agroecosystems that integrate management with the individual resource base within the framework of environmental conditions" was partially covered in the April 1993 article on Developing a Resource Inventory and The Road to Self-sufficiency. A brief introduction to soil, which will also be a help in understanding this article, was included in the Spring 1994 issue. It is not my intent to pose as an authority which I certainly am not, but it should be understood that these articles are presentations of ideas which flow from each other. For our readers who possess a basic understanding of ecology and soil science there is no need to review these articles. But if one is a novice in these subjects, then these articles will better help one understand the issues and principles at hand.

The orchestration of a community s resources towards agricultural sustainability involves the melding of one s resources through a wide variety of techniques. A primary goal is to increase the capture of the sun s energy while increasing the recycling of this energy and nutrients in a manner which moves towards closing the energy and nutrient cycle beyond the project s borders. In plain terms, we are speaking of fertility and waste management. Success is found in turning the sun s energy into nutritious foodstuffs while simultaneously returning or capturing a similar quantity of energy and nutrients as we consume.

In the agricultural realm, this is achieved through crop rotation and manure management. If done well, it is a magnificent symphony blending together a wide variety of skills, technique and time management culminating in sustainability. Crops are utilized to capture energy and nutrients, conserve soil, suppress weeds and to discourage disease to name a few. The methods of accomplishing these objectives are the grist of a successful farming system.

Green Manures
"A green manure is any crop that is tilled in before maturity to improve the soil. It serves mainly as a source of organic matter and nitrogen (especially legumes), but may also contribute significant amounts of other essential nutrients. Green manure root systems bring otherwise unavailable nutrients from the subsoil to the surface, and prevent erosion on cropped land over winter, 2

A crop is designated according to its major objective. In the sidebar on page 19, a list of crop uses is shown. However, often a crop performs more than one role. As an example, "a green manure crop is a crop which is plowed into the soil as a means of returning nutrients to the soil. However, every green manure performs a multitude of functions on the farm and when choosing which to grow, the more functions the green manure can perform the better,"~

As described in An Acres U.S.A. Primer because " cover crops being high in protein, carbohydrates and other nutrients, the green plant is the ideal food for soil microbes and rapidly stimulates the decay process. Early decomposition and release of nutrients from crop residues must take place before the grain filling process begins. Soil microbes and growing crops require many of the same nutrients. Therefore, a crop will not produce as well if it has to compete with the soil organisms for nutrients during its period of peak demand. The early spring decay stimulus from green manure is important in preventing this competition.

"Therefore, the green cover crop serves many functions:
I. It serves as a bucket to hold nutrients in a non-teachable form.
2. It stimulates early decay and the subsequent release of nutrients before peak crop needs.
3. Its roots and tops protect the surface from erosion and loosen the soil for better water insoak and aeration.
4. Its rapid decomposition releases organically complexed nutrients, antibiotics and many unknown factors all of which are essential plant needs.
5. It has the potential of turning every acre into a compost heap."4

Beyond understanding the general benefits of a green manure crop there are many important factors which need to be heeded in choosing the proper crop to be used as a plowdown. A partial list to be considered would include the cost of seed; time and labour required to plant and harvest different green manure crops; how the plowdown will fit into the crop rotation; the degree of nitrogen tie-up during decomposition; how some crops exude toxic chemicals (allelopathy) which can inhibit the growth of the following crop; and the effect of the green manure s mulching effect on soil temperatures to name a few.

The process of growing and plowing down green manures become vital in situations where a large land area is being worked without a sufficient source of either on- or off-farm manure/compost. It is important to realize that the use of green manures is an integral and invaluable component of sustainable farming and their cost in seed and time necessary.

Manure Management
"Don t bother about big, big buildings. It is not required. Useless waste of time. Produce. Make the whole field green. See that. Then whole economic question solved. Then you eat sumptuous. Eat sumptuously. The animal is happy. The animal even does not give milk; let them eat and pass stool and urine. That is welcome. After all, eating, they will pass stool. So that is beneficial, not that simple milk is beneficial. Even the stool is beneficial. Therefore I am asking so much here and.,., ‘Farm, farm, farm, farm.,. That is not my program—Krsna s program. Annad bhczvanti bhutani. Produce greenness everywhere, everywhere."5

Srila Prabhupada emphasizes here that manure is a valuable resource in growing food. "Livestock are inefficient in extracting nutrients from feedstuffs; typically 75 to 90 per cent of major nutrients that are fed to livestock passes directly through the animal into the manure. 6 "Animal manures consist of undigested portions of foods ground into fine bits and saturated with digestive juices in the alimentary tract. Dung contains, as a rule, one-third of the total nitrogen, one-fifth of the total potash, and nearly all of the phosphoric acid voided by the animals. But it is because of the large bacterial population - as much as 30 percent of its mass - that manure is so valuable in the compost heap."7

If manure is properly handled it quickly becomes a crucial tool in maintaining soil fertility. The farm s manure pack allows the movement of nutrients around the farm permitting the planting and harvesting of crops that normally could not be grown otherwise. In planning a rotation, plantings are generally arranged with crops requiring a lot of nutrition (e.g. corn and wheat) at the beginning of the rotation, i.e. following the turning under of a sod crop, being followed progressively by crops classified as medium and light feeders. However, considerable flexibility is available in cropping sequence when the nutrients required by the plants can be provided through generous applications of manure and compost.

Animals are fed hay and bedded down with straw. As previously mentioned, the majority of nutrients are found lying in the manure, When designing a rotation, the land is usually planted to legume/grass pasture or hay mixture allowing the land to rest and to rebuild its stock of nutrients. As an example, alfalfa has a strong taproot which grows deep into the soil and brings up nutrients to the upper soil profile. Being a legume, it naturally fixes nitrogen from the atmosphere with the help of rhizobium bacteria situated on its roots, but also helps liberate phosphorous to mention just one other important nutrient. When this is fed to the animals it, in essence, allows the farmer, by transporting the manure! 5. compost to other fields along with the nutrients found in the straw bedding. to focus the fertility of the whole farm for the benefit of the food crops and 6. the success of the farm in general.

Without getting sidetracked, this is a very important agronomic justification for cow protection alongside their other by-products of milk and draft. The Biodynamic farming school of thought demands that a farm have a 7 livestock base before granting certification under their Demeter label. Unfortunately, their herds are not restricted to dairy animals but they do understand the importance of the recycling of manure.

Composting
The handling of manure is a crucial aspect of the fertility program available to us on our rural projects. The process of composting involves adjusting the materials in the pile to provide an ideal living environment for a wide variety of living entities. Bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes and red worms transform the raw materials (nitrogen sources [manure, urine, vegetable waste, etc.], carbon sources [straw, leaves, etc. I, air and moisture) into a varying forms of stable humus.

"The advantages of composting are as follows:
1. Compost supports and encourages the growth of earthworms, bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms and adds organic matter to the soil. In this way, compost improves the biological, physical and chemical properties of the soil. In comparison, raw manure also adds organic matter but can cause a period of disruption to the soil life by creating an imbalance of nutrients.
2. Manure is acidic; composting increases the pH of the material which can help make the soil a better environment for plant growth.
3. The composting process stabilizes the volatile nitrogen of raw manure into large protein particles and there by reduces tosses.
4. Compost returns nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, calcium back to the soil.
5. The nutrients from mature compost are released to the plants slowly and steadily. The benefits will last for more than one season.
6. The nature of the material and the fungal/actinomycete mycelia contained in the compost and stimulated in the soil by its application help to bind the soil particles into crumbs, greatly increasing the stability of the soil to wind and water erosion.
7. Compost has a lower density, 400-600 kg/rn3 compared with typical manure that may be 400-1000 kg/rn3. Handling is easier and fewer trips are made to the field.
8. Odor is reduced.
9. Weed seeds are reduced by a combination of factors including the heat of the
compost pile, rotting and premature germination.
10. Fly eggs are killed and plant and animal pathogens are reduced if the high heat method of composting is used to raise the temperature of the pile to 600C.
11. Raw Manure is one of the primary culprits for pollution of the waterways, and odor from farms is considered an increasing problem in the rural areas. Composting raw manure reduces these problems. 8.

Composting and the use of green manures are vital building blocks to the success of our communities move towards self-sufficiency. As discussed in the last issue of the newsletter in the article entitled It ain't just Dirt, these methods are crucial to the maintenance of the soil s organic matter. The difference between conventional agriculture (farming dependent on the use of inorganic fertilizers and biocides) and organic agriculture is often typified as feeding the plant versus feeding the soil. Compost and green manures feed the soil and likewise the incredibly complex food chain existing beneath our feet. The benefit of increased organic matter levels are irrefutable, even by advocates of conventional agriculture.

The next step is to design these methods into a comprehensive crop rotation and it is at this point that the many components of farming unite to form the allegorical crescendo alluded to in the opening paragraph. Crop rotation brings all the
factors of successful farming to bear. The importance of different types of tillage and the timing of tillage, cropping patterns, variety selection, etc. will be revealed including the significance in understanding that farming requires a systems approach.

In the overall design of our communities, we have much to learn from the science/art of Permaculture. This article focuses on what Permaculture refers to as Zone 3, the area generally reserved for field cropping. However, the principles of crop rotation, green manure, composting, etc. are just as relevant to Zones 1 and 2 as in Zone 3. Our management methods be they in the field, garden, orchard or pasture must always be focused on maintaining soil fertility and structure.

Endnotes:
1. Miguel Altieri, Agroecology.
The Scientific Basis of Alternative
Agriculture, (Boulder: Westview
Press, 1987), p. 196.

2 Grace Gershuny and Joseph Smillie, THE SOUL OF SOIL. A Guide to Ecological Soil Management, (St. Johnsbury: Gaia
Services, 1986), page 52.

3. Anne Macey et al., Organic Field Crop Handbook, (Ottawa:
Canadian Organic Growers. 1992), page 47.

4. Walters and Fenzau, An Acres U.S.A. Primer, (Raytown: Acres U.S.A., 1979), p. 238.

5. A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami, Room Conversation, Jan. 3. 1977, Bombay, India.

6 Anne Macey et al., p. 32

7. Deborah L. Martin and Grace Gershuny, The Rodale Book of
Composting, page 121

8. Anne Macey et al. page. 35 - 36.

9. Anne Macey et al., p. 47-49

 

Definitions:

Cover Crops: protect the soil from wind and water erosion by covering it and, because they form a mulch, they greatly reduce annual weeds in the next growing season. They are frequently used to cover the soil over the winter either alive or as a dead, dense mat, Examples include red and sweet clover, hay or pasture seedlings, hairy vetch, winter cereals and buckwheat.

Catch Crop (nutrient conserving crops): has a brief period of growth and is either worked in after the main crop has been taken off or planted between two main crops. The crop protects the soil from erosion and minimizes nutrient loss from the soil through leaching. Also, because it is not harvested, it can enrich the soil by adding organic matter, nitrogen or other nutrients. Examples of catch crops are oil radish, red clover and buckwheat. Applications of compost or liquid manure are made to catch crops which soak up a lot of nutrients and immobilize them in their tissues. These nutrients become available to the next crop in the rotation as the plant residues decompose.

Break crops: a green manure that breaks the life cycle of pests, weeds or diseases is known as a break crop.

N-fixing green manures: legumes are the most important of the green manure crops. They fix nitrogen from the air, add organic matter to the soil and also enhance the cycling of phosphorus. Examples are red clover, alfalfa, sweet clover, vetch and most hay and pasture legumes.

Smother crops: when a green manure is grown primarily to control weeds, it is called a smother crop. It is characterized by its extremely dense, vigorous and rapid growth and is usually chosen with specific crops in mind. For example, fall rye is used against quack grass because its vigorous growth coincides with the growth cycle of quack grass.

Allelopathic crops: some crops produce natural chemical toxins which retard germination and inhibit the early growth of weed species. Examples are rye and yellow sweet clover

 

    Soil Seed Primer  by Adam Tomash   Soil Seed is a term we use to describe seed that's planted with the specific goal of improving the soil by plowing, tilling or digging the crop back into the earth. Soil crops create a better environment for subsequent vegetable, grain and flower crops by:

    * adding organic matter
    * increasing microbial activity
    * providing food and habitat for larger soil creatures
    * aerating compacted soils
    * increasing the retention of soil moisture
    * bringing minerals from the subsoil up to the root zone
    * fixing nitrogen from the atmosphere

Each crop has some special characteristics that make it well-suited to accomplishing a specific purpose. Those purposes can be divided into several broad categories which are discussed below and referenced in the soil seed information chart.

Allelopathic properties
Weeds can be controlled by planting crops whose roots produce natural toxins which inhibit the germination and growth of weed seeds. Winter rye, a commonly used plant with allelopathic characteristics, must be allowed to decompose for several weeks before planting the following crop. Sunflowers, oats and wheat are other examples. The allelopathic effect diminishes fairly rapidly for most plants once they are incorporated into the soil.

Beneficial insect habitat
Beneficial insects flock to a garden with a broad diversity of plants. Our bug breakfast blend is specifically mixed to create a diversity of plants that will attract beneficials. Some insects seek nectar to get through a period when their preferred food source is scarce. For example, clover blossoms produce nectar that attracts hungry lacewings, honey bees, lady bugs, and wasps. Often, beneficial insects will be lured in to prey on the pest of a soil crop but then remain to control other pests on your vegetable crop. Bell beans attract large numbers of bean aphids which in turn attract lady beetles. After the lady beetles have finished off the bean aphids, they scout for other prey and may clean them out as well.

Break crop
Different plants harbor different populations of insect pests. If populations build to harmful levels in one crop, a different crop that does not harbor those pests or actually diminishes their population may be planted to interrupt the pest's life cycle. After the break crop has done its work, the rotation may include the vulnerable crop once again. Reducing pest populations is one of the best reasons to rotate crops in the garden and on the farm.

Catch crop (aka trap crop)
Plants with a particularly strong ability to capture, store, and slowly release nutrients are called catch crops. They are traditionally planted in late summer or early fall to trap nutrients from freshly spread manures, previously turned under legumes or decomposing vegetation. They also protect the soil from winter erosion and nutrient losses. Crops such as annual ryegrass, oilseed radish and canola have heavy, fibrous root systems that capture nutrients and protect the land. Catch crops should be planted when there are 4-6 weeks of 55° days remaining before last frost, i.e., early September in the Northeast.

Cover crops
Land exposed to the weather over a fallow season without a protective mantle of plants (dead or alive) can lose both topsoil and nutrients and suffer erosion damage. Any cover is better than no cover. If you need to get on the soil quickly in the spring or have limited tillage equipment, you may want to plant something that will winter-kill like oats or a non-hardy vetch. If early access to the land is not a priority, a winter hardy crop like winter rye does a good job of holding everything in place. If the soil will be fallow the next season and does not have lots of available nutrients, a late summer legume (vetch/rye mix) provides protection from weather and will return an added bonus of nitrogen to those crops that follow.

Erosion control
Some plants grow especially well in areas vulnerable to erosion and hold soil in place even under adverse conditions. Annual ryegrass and bromegrass produce huge amounts of root mass. Subterranean clover not only provides a dense mat of vegetation to control water runoff, but also produces seed on peduncles that bury themselves deep into the soil where they avoid foragers and washout from heavy rains.

Intercropping
Planting a crop between rows of actively growing row crops is also referred to as intercropping. Benefits include prevention of soil compaction by machinery, loss of soil from heavy rains or winds, and an established, protective cover for the soil after the row crop is harvested. Many of the soil seeds work well in this capacity.

Nitrogen fixers
Leguminous plants, such as clover and soybeans, can form a symbiotic relationship with certain soil bacteria called rhizobia. If these bacteria are present in the root zone of the plant, they will set up housekeeping in "nodules" on the roots. There they extract nitrogen from the air and change it into a form plants can use. Many of these plant/bacteria combinations fix so much nitrogen that they eliminate the need for any further nitrogen inputs on the part of the grower.

It is common practice to coat seeds with the particular species of rhizobia that the legume prefers just prior to planting. This process is called inoculation. Most of our legume seed is raw, meaning it's not already inoculated. We sell inoculant for all of the common legumes; varieties which require an uncommon inoculant are sold in a pre-inoculated (aka - rhizocoated) form. Inoculants have a limited shelf life. Therefore, it's best to buy fresh inoculant each season. Well inoculated legumes get 70-80% of their nitrogen from the rhizobia and very little from the soil. In fact, soils with excessively high nitrogen can retard the nitrogen fixing ability of legumes. All plants liberate some nitrogen when they decompose, but legumes such as alfalfa, bell beans, cowpeas, field peas, soybeans and all the vetches create a net gain in soil nitrogen.

Nurse crops
A nurse crop assists the development of a slower maturing crop. For example, oats can be planted with clover to provide the clover with shelter from the wind, rain and sun. The oats germinate first, outcompete weeds for available resources and can be mowed when clover starts to emerge. Other crops are more productive if they have a support to climb. Vetch and field peas, for example, do better when they can twist themselves around a stiff-stalked nurse crop such as oats or rye.

Pest control
Some plants exude chemicals which can control other forms of life. For example, a crop of oilseed radish can greatly reduce populations of harmful nematodes. Nematodes are microscopic soil-dwelling creatures which bore into the flesh of root and tuber crops.

Scavenger crops
Topsoil that has been heavily cropped with shallow-rooted plants such as corn becomes deficient in certain nutrients. In order to restore these removed nutrients the grower must add them or use a plant that is adept at reaching deep into the subsoil to bring minerals to the surface. Scavenger crops such as alfalfa, red clover, sweet clover and bell beans also break up compacted soils. When the deep-rooted plants die, their decaying roots leave holes in the soil. These holes provide a pathway for roots of less aggressive plants to follow and for water to drain from the surface.

Smother crops such as buckwheat, japanese millet and sorghum-sudangrass control weeds with a thick canopy that excludes the sun and a fibrous, shallow root system that outcompetes weeds for water and nutrients. Smother crops usually grow quite tall at a fast rate or quickly produce broad leaves that shade out the lower growing weeds. Growing different crops in a single season is the most effective strategy. If the weed problem is severe, it may take more than one season to reach the desired level of control. An effective and common sequence of smother crops is oats in spring, buckwheat in mid-summer and winter rye in the fall.

For more information The soil seed section of the catalog has expanded greatly this year. We've provided much more cultural information than before, but if you are new to soil-cropping or want more details, we suggest you refer to Feed the Soil and the Northeast Cover Crop Handbook. Both are listed in our book section. If you have access to the Internet, we suggest you visit the cover crop website at the University of California: http://www.sarep.ucdavis.edu/sarep/ccrop. This website has an extraordinary amount of in-depth information.

Disclaimer We assume purchasers of our soil seed do not intend to use it for forage purposes. Although we have tried to list generally known cautions associated with using these crops as animal forage, we assume no responsibility for such usage and strongly urge you to consult with your local extension agent prior to feeding any of these crops to animals. The wide range of cultural practices and local climate conditions introduces so many variables that talking to a local expert is the prudent thing to do.
 

A Brief Introduction to Clovers

Clovers are effective builders of soil because they 1) improve soil aeration; 2) enhance soil microbial life; 3) increase soil water-holding capacity and permeability; 4) reduce wind and water erosion of light soils and the baking of heavy soils.

Ideally, clover should be seeded with an alfalfa drill. Most folks don't have one and will need to prepare a seed bed, broadcast the seed and use a roller or some type of drag to cover the seed. Soil cover reduces depredations by birds and rodents, provides better moisture conditions for seedling development, and reduces exposure to heat and sunlight which ensures better survival of the Rhizobia with which the seed should have been inoculated. In the Northeast, seeding directly into a late spring snow or onto a field that is heaving and cracking from late spring frosts can often establish a stand in an existing field with little or no tillage effort. This practice is called frost seeding and can be very effective.

Prior use of smother crops like sorgum-sudangrass, oats, rye or buckwheat can reduce competition from weeds and provide a firm seed bed for the clover. Clover should be seeded no more than a half-inch deep or seedlings will be unable to reach the soil surface. Smooth, firm seedbeds will assure uniformly shallow seeding. The first year following seeding is critical for a clover stand. The stand must produce abundant seed to ensure its renewal. Ample potassium and phosphorus reserves are necessary as is sulfur. Have your soil tested and if soil phosphorus levels are below 20 ppm, amendments are in order.

Grazing or mowing keeps faster-growing weeds and grasses from overtopping the clover. Ideally, a new field should be kept grazed or mowed to about 3 inches until seed heads appear on any annual grasses. Thereafter, livestock feed selectively on clover and should be removed from the range until clover seeds have matured. Clover growth is generally best in the soil pH range of 6-7.

Many clovers produce a certain percentage of seed that won't germinate in the first year, but will germinate in following years. This type of seed is called hard seed and is a characteristic of legumes (particularly alfalfa, clover and vetch) that ensures their survival. In a year with adverse conditions, the hard seed that didn't previously germinate will be ready to perpetuate the stand the following year. Our soil seed labels list the percentage of hard seed separate from the percent germination. To figure total germination add the percent germination to the percent hard seed.
 

 

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